What are contingencies and contracts?

Consider the following scenario…

When Bobby, a third grader, comes home from school one afternoon, his grandmother meets him at the front door. Bobby immediately asks for a cookie. His grandmother answers, “You can have a cookie, but first you need to take out the trash.” Bobby reluctantly agrees and proceeds to empty the garbage into the garbage can in the backyard. As he comes back inside the house, his grandmother immediately gives him a cookie and a hug, and thanks him for helping her out.

The above scenario is a familiar one to many people. Adults are often setting up conditions with children to perform less preferred activities first before they can have a more preferred activity. This has called Grandmother’s Rule or in scientific terms the Premack Principle (Premack, 1959). According to this principle, individuals are more likely to complete less preferred tasks and activities if they know a more preferred or motivating activity will be available to them when they complete the less preferred activity. Regardless of the scientific background, setting up contingencies for a certain behavior and then rewarding the child when the behavior is performed is an excellent and effective strategy.

Background

The use of contingencies and contracts is taken from the field of applied behavioral analysis (ABA). Based on principles of learning and behavior (Alberto & Troutman, 1999; Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968), ABA techniques focus on the sequence of antecedent, behavior, consequence, and how behaviors are reinforced. Very briefly, ABA basically addresses what is done before a behavior happens, what the behavior itself looks like, and what is done immediately after the behavior. By changing (a) the environment and/or what happens before behaviors occur, (b) how adults/teachers prompt children (antecedents), and (c) how adults/teachers respond after a behavior occurs (consequences), we can increase, decrease or eliminate behaviors.

Definitions

The Random House Dictionary of the English Language (1998) defines a contingency as “dependence on the fulfillment of a condition” (p. 439) and a contract as “an agreement between two or more parties for the doing or not doing of something specific” (p. 441).

In addition to current terminology, contingencies and contracts have been called different names over the years, including contracting, contingency contracting, contingency contracts, contingency management, behavior contracts, learning contracts, and social contracts. Minor differences between the various terms will be explained later in this lesson. Although the names may differ, all of them consist of the same basic elements, as described below.

In the Handbook of Special Education (Wang, 1988), contracting is defined as “… a formal written agreement between a student and a teacher, parent, peer, or other person.

A typical contract specifies the behavior(s) to be increased and/or decreased, the student goal with respect to these behaviors, and the consequences associated with goal attainment or non-attainment” (p. 130).

In greater detail, Alberto and Troutman (1999) describe the minimum elements of an educational contract as follows:

1. Behavior the child is either increasing or decreasing (e.g. completing more math examples or decreasing the number of times asking a question during a lesson)
2. Conditions under which the behavior will occur (e.g. whenever the teacher hands out a math worksheet or during the entire class period from 9:00 to 9:45 AM)
3. Criterion for completion (e.g. when 75% of math examples are correct or only asking one question every 10 minutes)
4. Reinforcer the child receives for meeting goal (e.g. 10 minutes of computer time or being the line leader going down to lunch). This would also include the dates that the contract is in effect.

For some children, especially for those who need very explicit information, additional details may be a part of the contract. This might include precise information about the reinforcer (e.g. using the computer in Mrs. Jones’ room for 10 minutes at 3:00 PM); the conditions (e.g. all work assigned in the Math Trailblazers workbook during the month of January); and criterion such as a description of the behavior (e.g. a question is defined as you asking a question that is audible to the teacher in the math period, or completion of math is when you have completed all 10 problems with at least 75% accuracy).

In brief, a contract is when adults set up “if-then” statements with students to help children do less preferred activities first and more preferred activities later. The following is one example of a contract.

Research

Research across several decades has shown that contingencies and contracts work well with groups and individuals, with students of all ages and ability levels, and in general education, special education, and home settings (Mable & Marholin, 1980; Nelson & Rutherford, 1988; Rutherford & Polsgrove, 1981; Salend, 1987; White-Blackburn, Semb, & Semb, 1977).